In his study of the history of the term Logos in ancient Greek, Jewish, and Christian thinkers, Daniel H. Williams provided not only a detailed analysis of the polysemic notion of logos as speech, discourse, reason, or divine will, but also posed stimulating questions for the Chinese reader about how the Chinese understanding of Dao compares with terms like 法则 (natural law or nomos) and 理 (principle). This essay will follow up this question by tracing the polysemic word Dao in Chinese and the translation in various concepts like Logos, Verbum, Way, and Word, in order to demonstrate the different metaphysical framework in China and the West, namely, the logic of “mutual-substitute” or “the substitute”.

Auden read Arthur Waley's translation of the Quietist Tao Té Ching and became absorbed in “Tao” around 1940s. Based on Auden's comprehension of “Tao”, this paper provides a path to elucidate his poetic switch by retracing his Western intellectual background. Auden saw Tao as a “correlative” tightrope to facilitate one to strike a balance between polarities such as intellect and sense as well as vagueness and triviality. His pursuit of “Tao” stemmed from Niebuhr's critique of pride, resulted in his yearning for humility and later acknowledgement of philosophical ideas such as Tillich's “relation”, Buber's “I and Thou”, and Williams’ “The Co-inherence”. This spurred him to explore how poetry could “happen” and “survive” after he claimed that “poetry makes nothing happen”. Auden understood “Tao” in terms of correlative “Co-Inherence”, and the relation of “growing out of one another” in “Tao” also echoed “Co-Inherence” which differed from “Logocentrism”. This was the philosophical background of Auden's dialogue-based poetics and revealed his poetic quest for subverting metaphysical prohibition.

The tradition of “Poetry Education” has existed since ancient times, and Chinese Confucianism believes that reading The Book of Songs can achieve the purpose of building an ideal personality. Western society also attaches importance to the educational role of literary classics, and the category of “Bildungsroman” has emerged in modern literature. It is common to define “Bildungsroman” as novel that describes the development of young people, but its definition is often debated in the German-speaking world. Dilthey uses the term “Bildungsroman” but Lukács uses “Erziehungsroman”, forming an intergenerational dialogue of literary thought in the difference between “Bildung” and “Erziehung”. This article carefully reads Dilthey's and Lukács' interpretations on Goethe's Wilhelm Meisters Lehrjahre and Hölderlin's Hyperion, and analyzes the differences in their concepts of “Bildungsroman”, and argue that “Bildungsroman” does not only focus on the description of the process of growing up, but also makes demands of broadening the depth of thought or actively participating in the social life of individuals in specific historical contexts.

Figura is a central concept in Auerbach's literary criticism. In Auerbach's writing, figura goes beyond medieval allegoria tradition, and is a fundamental way of understanding the world and history at that time. Meanwhile, figura is also related to the utterance of meaning as a kind of mimesis of the veritas. Extended between the two respects, figura becomes a “mediator” between earthly reality and ultimate meaning. The “in-between-ness” of the figura displaces veritas as relations between events and suspension of history, and liberates mimesis from the metaphysical narration of identity. This is similar to Walter Benjamin's discussion of Chinese calligraphy's mimesis between “image-thought” and Francois Julian's interpretation of Chinese non-mimetic aesthetics in terms of “shi” and “configuration.” The three critics’ reflections on the mimesis from the roots of Eastern and Western thought precisely form an intellectual space for mutual interpretation between them.

“Der Besuch des Grünen Drachen”(The Green Dragon's Visit) is an ignored fable of Kafka. “Der grüne Drache”(the green dragon) is an image probably learned from Richard Wilhelm's translation of “Qinglong” in Chinese culture. Therefore, this fable might be regarded as a Chinese text, the connotation of which can be understood as Kafka's imagination of his encounter with Taoist thought presenting a state of life very similar to Zhuang Zi's explanation of “inaction” as “one living like a corpse and his dragon power will emerge”. Kafka had delved deeply into Taoist works such as Tao Te Ching and Zhuang Zi translated by Richard Wilhelm, which might have helped him breaking free from the passive nature of his early thoughts around 1917, as well as absorbing the broader and more peaceful life state of “inaction” into his thinking and writing. It also provided him with spiritual support in the plight of life. Revealing this deep connection between Kafka and Taoism may shed light on today's inter-cultural exchanges between East and West.

The George-Kreis (the George Circle) was a poetry school centered on the German poet Stefan George, and was also an academic school with its unique academic philosophy. The modern Chinese writer Feng Zhi had a connection with it when he was studying in Germany (1930-1935) and had been deeply influenced by it. The influence lasted for sixty years, but no one has studied it so far. Based on the existing works, diaries, letters and related historical materials, it is sufficient to roughly reconstruct the process of Feng Zhi's connection with the George-Kreis, and then analyze the influence of the George-Kreis on Feng Zhi. The George-Kreis mainly influenced Feng Zhi through Stefan George's poetry and the academic works of his student Friedrich Gundolf. It not only affected Feng Zhi's ideological transformation, but also affected his decision on his academic path. In particular, Friedrich Gundolf, as a teacher admired by Feng Zhi, had a profound impact on his academic path throughout his life.

Taking translated works as his pathway of acceptance, Shen Congwen's early literary views were influenced by On Art. Shen Congwen's novel structure received emotional and value support from Tolstoy's urban-rural narrative model. Shen Congwen idealized and standardized Tolstoy's image, considering it a prototype of an ideal writer, which he used to address common authors' concerns. He also used Tolstoy's image as a spiritual weapon to deal with external criticism/pressure and to adhere to his own path. At the same time, he “sought wisdom from the wise” and used Tolstoy's image to fortify himself. Shen Congwen praised Tolstoy as the “most lovable,” “humanitarian,” and “great literary figure,” making him a unique figure among Shen Congwen's influences, resonating with Shen Congwen's emotional and spiritual needs. Understanding Shen Congwen's reception and transformation of Tolstoy reveals a dimly lit but authentically existing scene in Shen Congwen's novels, thoughts, and spiritual world.

Lao She mentioned a film insulting China in Mr. Ma and Son, and a series of key events around the film played an important role in the development of the plot and the fate of the characters. Through the research, this paper finds that this film is not fabricated by Lao She but real. It is one of the derivatives works of many cross-media texts of the famous United Kingdom popular cultural symbol Mr. Wu from 1913 to 1928. Together with other cross-media texts, this film has exerted a subtle influence on the generation of Lao She's Mr. Ma and Son text. Revealing the intertextual relationship between the two not only fills in the gaps in the interpretation of Mr. Ma and Son, but also provides new materials for perfecting the extraterritorial background of this novel.

Mr. Ma and Son, Lao She's early work of foreign experience, is generally interpreted as a novel showing the differences of national traits and cultures between China and the UK and also as a postcolonial text revealing Orientalist discourse. The uniqueness of Mr. Ma and Son, however, lies in its double perspective, i.e., the Chinese view of the Englishman's view of the Chinese, and its parody of Orientalism in characterizing the absurd Englishman. Lao She writes about the West as the Other as the West usually does, and appropriates the stereotyped Eastern images to shed light on the deceptiveness and narrow-mindedness of racism and Western hegemony. His novel writing is a special approach to his Occidentalism, which is the resistance from the East as well as the reflection on the national identity. When faced with the conflict between the East and the West, the ideal Chinese citizen should be inclusive of the advantages and alert to the disadvantages of both parties. Lao She's Occidentalism is a meaningful exploration on the way to national confidence and strength.

Michele Ruggieri, an Italian Jesuit who settled in the Mainland China during the late Ming Dynasty, composed 34 metrical poems in Chinese. These poems hold a unique distinction as they constitute the sole collection of Chinese metrical poems written by Europeans between 1500 and 1900. This paper begins by exploring Michele Ruggieri's study materials for metrical poetry, primarily his handwritten manuscript of “Poetic Rhyme,” to unravel the underlying process of his metrical poetry studies. Subsequently, it analyzes his poetry writing from three core aspects of metrical poetry composition: the metrical application of modern-style poetry; the requirement for balanced vocabulary within verses; the incorporation of classical allusions within the poems. Additionally, through an in-depth analysis of the content of these poems, the paper discusses Ruggieri's study and utilization of Qian-Jia-Shi in his poetic composition. The most distinctive feature of Ruggieri's poetry writing lies in the integration of Chinese and Western literature within the poems, including the pioneering introduction of Aesop's Fables in poetic form. As a result, Michele Ruggieri's poems stand as a highly distinctive collection in the history of Ming Dynasty poetry.

Under a strict genre differentiation, there are only 7 existing novels in Cantonese dialect written or translated by protestant missionaries in the late Qing Dynasty, nevertheless, most of which are long-length works, of no less importance compared with other categories of novels in Cantonese in the same era dominated by short stories. The publication year of Repentance of the Prodigal Son(《浪子悔改》)and Unscathed in the Furnace(《落炉不烧》), the earliest novels in Cantonese, can be determined in no earlier than 1848. The Pilgrim's Progress in Canton Dialect(《天路历程土话》), the earliest existing long-length novel in Cantonese, of better translation quality than the Mandarin version, performs a high level of Cantonese language; while The Holy War in Canton Dialect(《人灵战纪土话》) is a rare sample of the real ability of foreign missionaries’ written Cantonese of the time. “英为霖”, the translator with byline of The Adventures of Crusoe(《辜苏历程》), one of the earliest Cantonese translation of Robinson Crusoe, should refer to William Bridie; and the paraphrase strategy of this work was not to lay stress on religious principles. In this paper, the author tries to give further clarifications and corrections to the relevant literature issues to ensure the necessary basis for follow-up researches.

During the long years of colonialism, Macao has gradually formed two separate areas, “Christ City” and “China Town”. “Macao” is a literary space where discourses from all sides compete. The Macao Cultural Affairs Bureau, an official institution of the Macao Portuguese government, launched the “Portuguese Writers Series” in an attempt to implant the Portuguese national spirit in “Macao literature”; the “Five Selections of Macao Literature” selected and edited by local writers organized by the Macao Foundation, express their identity through the “meta-narrative” of “Macao literature is rooted in China”; the “Selected Works of Macao Macanese Literature” co-launched by the Macao literature research community tries to reconcile the above contradictions, emphasizing the cross-cultural identity of Macanese literature. This construction is not purely objective, but an “invention” of the Macanese literary tradition by the party that ultimately won the cultural leadership. Examining the historical context of the formation of Macao literature in the transitional period and its plural forms will help us think about the cross-regional attributes in regional literature.

The legend of the “Flying Head Clan” is widely circulated in the southern minority regions of China and in Southeast Asia. Malaysian Chinese writers Zhang Guixing and Zhang Cao, both from the eastern part of Malaysia, have rewritten the “Flying Head” legend in their literary works, Boars Crossing the River and “Alian's Broken Head” respectively. Despite growing up in the same region of Malaysia, Zhang Guixing and Zhang Cao have presented diverse interpretations of the “Flying Head Clan” legend, and this diversity is primarily due to their different creative purposes and the varied forms presented in their texts, which highlight the differences even more. These works borrow and adapt the “Flying Head Clan” legend differently based on their unique creative needs, and the significance attributed to the “Flying Head Clan” image varies in different textual contexts.

As a methodology to explore the historical and logical basis of the occurrence and development of things, Genetics has long been used by the academic community, but it seems that there is only Yan Shaodang who puts forward the concept of “Genetics of Comparative Literature” and makes a profound and unique interpretation of it in combination with the case of the generation of ancient literary works in Japan. The phenomenon of “variation” widely existing in the world literature requires researchers to break through the barrier of national consciousness, leap into the perspective of cross-national, cross-cultural and cross-linguistic interrelationship, and adopt the methodology of Comparative Literature Genetics to gain the understanding of its “unique” truth. Yan Shaodang, taking “positive research of primordial texts” as the methodology of the Genetics of Comparative Literature, requests to investigate the various “intermediate media” and the operating mechanism of “incorrect understanding” that caused literary variation in the cultural context, examine the reason of literary variants from the “described culture”, and find the truth of the “factual culture”.

The investigation of Japanese collection of Chinese books is the work of Classical Bibliography, but it can also produce Comparative Literature, so it is also a part of Comparative Literature. Comparative Literature Philology can also be constructed from Classical Bibliography or Classical Philology. Comparative Literature Philology is a method of reading bibliography and studying communication relations. The essence of communication relationship is the literature relationship, and we must sink into the literature level to understand the communication relationship more clearly. Classical Philology and Comparative Literature are different disciplines with different properties and tasks, so there will be contradictions and distances. Only by constructing Comparative Literature Philology can we effectively promote the study of communication relations and eliminate chaos and entanglement. Unfortunately, no works of Comparative Literature Philology have been found in the history of Comparative Literature up to now. The construction and practice of Comparative Literature Philology have the significance of primitive research.

This article makes a comparative study between Jorge Luis Borges's “The Garden of Forking Paths” (1941) and Christopher Nolan's Inception (2010) to reflect on the artistic expressions of infinity in film and literature. Although these two works have been regarded as successful models of constructing temporal spatial labyrinth in literature and in film respectively, most of the interpretations either confuse the multiple non-linear time, parallel universe with infinity, or neglect the narrative impact on circulation and repetition made by the structure of “story within a story.” To imagine or express the infinity in literature and film, we must introduce the self-referential paradox into the narrative of works instead of relying on the expansion of physical time-space or the accumulation of possible worlds. As a sort of limited beings, the infinity that we can imagine and perceive could only be paradoxical expressions with the help of symbols and representations.

The core issue of this paper is how to understand the “pragmaticism” which C. S. Peirce endorsed. The debate that has been continuing since the antique time about the connection between words-signs and their objects (the issue of motivation) leaves a great number of questions. Socrates, as described by Plato, hesitated on the issue. Scholars, later divided in their opinions, as Saussure and Peirce did, from complete unmotivatedness to frequent motivation, but still localized. All these were issues in the primary motivation. Once signs have entered the use of social activities, secondary ubiquitous motivation takes place. Peirce was among the first to declare that signs grow in their practical use, and the use of signs is actually to develop the signs. Therefore, the pragmatic activities themselves fertilize the signs themselves.

As the core concept of aesthetic research, the word “form” provokes more disagreement than consensus. As an important proposition in the study of literature and art, the relationship between form and content has triggered many debates. Returning to the “formalism” and revealing the mystery of the “form” not only meets the theoretical need to examine and respond to the problems and disputes, but also has the realistic value of facing and interpreting the change of contemporary art. Centering on the comparison of Chinese and Western formal theories, this paper first analyzes the differences in cultural thinking behind the translation of “xing” (形) and “form”, and reveals that Chinese and Western art always contains anti-form characteristics that transcend form by summarizing the ternary division logic of Chinese and Western formal theories. Finally, this paper analyzes the meaning-generating mechanism of “artistry” in contemporary art by means of formal analysis, so as to clarify the paradigmatic characteristics and theoretical utility of semiotic aesthetics in the new era.

Sense of beauty is sparked by the encounter of heart and object and mediated by body as the medium. Media as things to connect, integrate, mediate and map the world affects how sensations are inspired and produced. Aesthetics of common sense takes that feelings sparked by images and categories, as well as synaesthesia come into being on the dimensions of body as the media, disembodied/trans-embodied language, and trans-channel mapping. Body and the degree of embodiment are, therefore, are of great significance in the generation of images and feelings.

Since the birth of the concept of “lively rhythm” (qi yun sheng dong), its aesthetic meaning has been changing constantly, and it is difficult to be clearly defined. From the perspective of semiotics, the concept of“lively rhythm” mainly deals with the “momentum” of art signs. Most prominent features of“lively rhythm” is to associate the art text with the universe, nature, social life, acceptance of meaning and other dimensions. The “momentum” of “lively rhythm” runs through the three dimensions of meaning: syntactics, semantics and pragmatics, and is the most comprehensive and profound interpretation of art's “momentum”. The reason why the “momentum” of “lively rhythm” can run through three dimensions of artistic sign meaning lies in its “rhizomatic” sign structure and “becoming” sign meaning mechanism. The “momentum” of“lively rhythm” slows down the “entropy” of the meaning world with a dynamic structure of artistic sign, so that the whole society and culture can maintain its vitality.

This paper aims to explore the socialization function of fantasy literature through the study of Western and Chinese quest fantasy classics. Fantasy narrative usually contains a certain pattern of “task-effort-success”. The protagonist is sent on a hero's journey, undergoes trials, and finally completes his mission and receives a reward. The narrator imparts specific values to the reader through this affirmative “structural completeness”, so that the reader identifies with the protagonist and gains these values that enable the hero to succeed in the process of adventuring with him. In doing so, the reader, like the hero, can become a better social entity, better integrate into society, and better play his social role when he returns from the adventure. It is through this model that fantasy literature implicitly instills socially accepted values and worldviews in readers as they read, allowing them to follow the adventures and grow with the protagonist.

Symbolic representation has played a significant role in both Chinese alchemy and Western alchemy. Alchemical texts that carry these symbolic representations have naturally become excellent texts for semiotic research. However, in today's rapidly developing semiotic research, scholars in both China and the West have not fully recognized the symbolic representations and related interpretations in each other's alchemical (gold) texts. In light of this, this article attempts to explore the types, presentation methods, and similarities and differences in the interpretations of symbolic representations in Chinese and Western alchemical texts by comparing the symbolic representations and related interpretations in Zhang Boduan's Awakening to the Real and George Ripley's Twelve Gates from the 15th century Augustinian school, as well as subsequent annotated versions. This aims to fill the research gap in this field and expand the understanding of semiotics.

The Chinese translation of Edgar Allan Poe's novel “Silence — A Fable” was first published in the eighth issue of Henan, titled “Lonely”(ji mo), and the translator was “Du Ying”. After being included in Collection of Foreign Fiction, it was renamed “Silent” (mo) and the translator was Zhou Zuoren. This article first examines the introduction of Poe by the Zhou brothers since 1905, as well as the translation of a line from the Greek poet Alkman quoted at the beginning of “Lonely”, and focuses on examining the correlation between some words in the translation of “Lonely” and Lu Xun. At the same time, it compares the changes in words in the two versions of “Lonely” and “Silent”, and analyzes the reasons for this modification. This translation not only bears the imprint of Lu Xun in terms of vocabulary, but also has Lu Xun's distinct emotional and ideological characteristics. Therefore, this article concludes that this translation is highly likely to be interpreted by Zhou Zuoren, translated by Lu Xun, or translated by Zhou Zuoren from English and then proofread, modified, and polished by Lu Xun.

Lu Xun's acceptance of Ibsen was deeply rooted in the course of Ibsen's spreading in China, and it also promoted the Chinese literary arena's acceptance of Ibsen to a deeper level. Since he was studying in Japan, Lu Xun always had a strong soul resonance with the brave and isolated “Stockman”, which constituted the center of Lu Xun's early understanding of Ibsen's works. On the occasion of the 100th anniversary of Ibsen's birth in 1928, Lu Xun read three pieces of literary criticism on Ibsen's works written by Takeo Arishima and Noburu Katagami. The profound interpretation of thoughts urged Lu Xun to translate and introduce them in order to bring “reference” and “comprehension” to Chinese readers, and also prompted Lu Xun to shift his focus from the works themselves to grand and ideological issues. At the same time, the practice of translating and introducing Japanese criticism also constituted Lu Xun's reflection on the reason why the special issue of Ibsen in New Youth (xin qing nian) in 1918 encountered a reception of “silence” and his strategic choice made when “restarting” the commemoration of Ibsen. Together with the establishment of supplement for anniversary in the periodical Torrent (ben liu) by Lu Xun, these three pieces of Japanese criticism brought changes to the development of the Chinese new literature.

Lao She's Rickshaw Boy is not only a classic novel in the history of modern Chinese literature, and its numerous translations have made it an important publication in Sino-American cultural exchange. However, previous scholarship on the English translation of Rickshaw Boy was largely limited to the textual interpretation of the novel, which consequently dismisses the transmission and transformation of this Chinese rickshaw puller's story across different media. In the immediate postwar years of WWII, as this study has discovered, Rickshaw Boy was “tradapated” as a popular novel, a drama script and a screenplay in America, respectively. Each transmedia rendition posed a challenge to the development of the story and provided a new interpretation of the original meaning, demonstrating the force of postwar American popular culture in the shaping of Chinese stories.

Numbers of Tai Wan students chose to study in the Mainland and abroad around the Great Revolution period. That fighting for the national reunification was the reason why they dedicated themselves to revolution affairs of both Tai Wan region and the Mainland. While establishing revolutionary groups some of them published their translated literature and the revolutionary qualities were epitomized by Zhang Wojun, Li Wanju and Zhang Xiuzhe. Their translated works, which were concentrated on the theme of love and marriage, contained revolutionary consciousness or the Left Wing ideas as the translators held different opinions of China's revolution status, which gave their translated works tensions of revolutionary thoughts different from proletarian literature. The translated literature of Tai Wan students mentioned above enriched Chinese revolutionary literature from various aspects such as literature resources abroad, themes, revolutionary thoughts and practices. As a consequence, the Tai Wan Path is an important part of Chinese revolutionary literature that could not be ignored.

Qian Zhongshu's article “Poetry Can Modify Vexations of Life” (“Our Sweetest Songs”) left a question at the end, that is, why China and the West generally devalued “happy words” but overestimated “miserable words”. In fact, there was already an answer to this in Qian's various works and manuscripts: sadness and resentment can easily penetrate into person's mind, and they are strong, long-lasting and complex, and have a dialectical relationship with pleasure. With the help of art, they can be transformed into aesthetic emotions. Compared to other forms of art, poetry is an art of language, which allows for more freedom to express sadness and resentment, and more freedom to reflect suffering; compared to other literary works such as historical books, poetry, due to its artistic techniques, such as rhythm, symbolism, allusion and dramatization, could transform sadness and resentment to art. Modern literature theory should not be limited to western discourse. “Poetry can modify vexations of life” was an ancient expression, which had originally been mentioned only from the perspective of acceptance in the text of The Analects of Confucius, but Qian Zhongshu interpreted it as a poetic concept with profound meaning and universality. Therefore, classical terms and modern ideas could be interrelated and fused.

In his early poetics writings during different periods, Zhu Guangqian blended and modified Croce's “intuition” and Lips' “empathy” to varying degrees. In the process of appropriation and transformation, Zhu Guangqian gradually developed his own coherent and comprehensive poetic system that unified subjective and objective elements. However, this unity of subject and object poetics, which is based on the dichotomy of subject and object in the West, faces various incongruities and contradictions when interpreting the characteristics of the inseparability of subject and object in Chinese classical poetry, which is particularly reflected in the writing and revision of Zhu Guangqian's Poetics and other works. In the final version of Poetics, Zhu Guangqian chose to delete his unique recognition of the characteristics of Chinese classical poetry and the corresponding impressionistic comments in order to maintain the harmony of his own system.

The thesis comprehensively examines Huang Zunxian, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao's Nanyang thought journey from the dimension of poetry creation. Through analysis, it can be seen that in the three stages of the Reform movement (before the beginning, during the development and after the end), Huang Zunxian, Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao, crossed South Asia due to “official appointment,” “political pursuit,” or “group trip to Europe,” engaged in poetic and prose creation to imagine Southeast Asia as an “overseas diaspora location,” “barbaric land of the South,” or “spiritual refuge,” respectively. This reveals their different states of presence in Southeast Asia as “integration,” “semi-integration,” or “detachment,” finding their unique positions of voice: “prelude to reform,” “echo of reform,” “silence of reform.” They truly accomplished a shift in thought of “democratic republicanism-constitutional monarchy,” “reform and change-monarchist constitutionalism,” and “political utilitarianism-Buddhist Zen introspection,” alleviating the modern anxieties of “being underused,” “dispersed exile,” and “shattered ideals.” This constitutes the Southeast Asian branch of thought in the extended line of the Reform Movement in China.

During her residence in Shanghai between 1935 and 1939, American writer Emily Hahn wrote a series of short stories about China for the New Yorker. The production and circulation of these stories relate Hahn to both the bilingual culture in Shanghai and American middlebrow literature. This essay examines how she imagines a cosmopolitan expatriate identity in relation to these two culture spheres. Through first-person narrative, Hahn's stories depict a Chinese, Mr. Pan Heh-Ven, and his connection to a variety of characters in Shanghai. This interconnection represents the multi-layered power relations in semi-colonial Shanghai. The narrator expresses her attitude towards the inequalities inherent in these power structures by her different modes of interaction with Mr. Pan. As a result, these short stories voice a gendered perspective of critical cosmopolitanism that is anti-colonial, anti-imperialist, and against patriarchal family structure.

The early twentieth century witnessed educational reforms and a significant increase in the number of textbooks which were published by commercial presses. The Chinese textbooks, despite of their variety in content and structure, served multiple functions in promoting the modern Chinese language, cultivating literary taste, and broadening cultural horizons of new reading public. From the 1910s onwards, a certain number of foreign literary pieces, anecdotes, short biographies were translated, rewritten, and presented in Chinese textbooks. After 1922 when the new set of educational policies was issued, the prevalence of vernacular Mandarin and New Culture Movement accelerated the localization of the exotic resource. These Chinese textbooks formulated a particular textual space in which foreign literature was juxtaposed with or incorporated into local literary discourse and practice. In the process of teaching, reading, adapting and performing, the “world” was reconceptualized and imbued with new meanings. Children and adolescent readership was granted with new experience and imagination of “world literature.”